Middle English Phonology and Morphology

Section One: Phonology

Voiced Fricatives

Old English lacked a phonemic distinction between voiced and voiceless fricatives. As a result, fricatives became voiced in voiced contexts. A word spelled husian would be pronounced [huzian]. In Middle English, these voiced and voiceless fricatives became phonemic, and no longer varied according to their phonological environment. This happened because of several different reasons.

  1. Middle English included French loanwords that had voiced fricatives in initial or final position in a word, such as village.
  2. Southern Middle English dialects were voicing initial fricatives as early as Old English. If dialects mixed, the voiced alternate could be adopted as the normal variant. For example, Southern vixen was adopted and used alongside Northern and Midlands fox.
  3. Fricatives became voiced in lightly stressed words, such as his [hIz]
  4. When Middle English lost inflectional endings (or at least reduced them dramatically) voiced fricatives were left in previously voiceless position, but they remained voiced. For example, OE husian ME huse [huz]

Identify the reason (1-4) for the voiced fricative in Middle English in each of the following Present Day English words. You will need to consult the Oxford English Dictionary, or some other dictionary that includes etymological information, to determine the origin of some of the words.

  1. weave
  2. slave
  3. vat
  4. of
  5. clothe
  6. cave
  7. valley
  8. verse
  9. has
  10. then

Lengthening and Shortening of Vowels in Stressed Syllables

The quantity (the length of time you would say a vowel sound) was different in some Middle English words than it was in Old English. This happened for several reasons:

  1. Some vowels shortened before certain consonant clusters in late Old English. (see p. 155 for a list)
  2. In the thirteenth century (1200s), a, e, and o lengthened in open syllables (syllables that ended in a vowel--in other words, syllables without a coda; for example, the PDE word "sofa" has two open syllables: so-fa. Since they lack a coda [a consonant that closes them off], linguists describe them as 'open' syllables). If a single consonant comes between two vowels, it belongs to the onset of the second syllable: OE nama ME na-ma (long a in first syllable).
  3. Long vowels (except those that preceded the consonant clusters described in 1 above) shortened in closed syllables (syllables with a coda). OE softe (long o in first syllable) ME sof-te.
  4. In Middle English, if the word were polysyllabic (more than two syllables), the vowel of the stressed syllable always shortened, despite its shape (whether it was open or closed). This rule affected compounds principally. ME breke (long e in first syllable) ME brekefast .

The stressed vowel (the first) in each of these Middle English words differs in quantity from its earlier Old English form. Indicate which of the processes above (1-4) caused the change. All of the words below are Middle English words. The vowel quantity is indicated in the parentheses after the word.

  1. binde (long) 'to bind'
  2. blast (short)
  3. even (long)
  4. founden (long)
  5. gold (long) 
  6. grinde (long)
  7. redeles (short)
  8. holiday (short)
  9. smoke (long)
  10. stepchild (short)

Sporadic Sound Changes

Middle English also experienced a number of sporadic (occasional and unconditioned) sound changes in addition to the systematic changes described above. Some of the sporadic sound changes included the following: 

  1. Addition of unetymological consonants, as when PDE drowned is pronounced [draundId].
  2. Loss of consonants, as when PDE husband is pronounced without the final d.
  3. Dissimilation, when one of the two similar or identical sounds changes, as when Latin turtur becomes English turtle.
  4. False division, when the boundary between two words shifts, as when PDE ice cream is pronounced I scream.
  5. Metathesis, the inversion of the order of two sounds in a word, as when PDE nuclear is pronounced nucelar.

Each of these words underwent one of these changes. Use the Oxford English Dictionary to determine the earlier form of the word and put it in the blank space to the right. After you note the form, note the type of change it went through. Some words may demonstrate one or more changes.

  1. dirt
  2. sister
  3. adder
  4. thrill
  5. newt
  6. nonce
  7. spindle
  8. marble
  9. messenger
  10. scrimmage

Section Two: Morphology

Adjective Inflections

During Middle English, all the adjectival inflections that Old English had were lost, except for a shadow of the earlier strong versus weak distinction. This distinction only appeared, however, in monosyllabic adjectives that ended with a consonant. For these, a strong singular adjective had no inflectional ending. Plural adjectives were indistinguishable: both strong and weak plurals ended in -e. Adjectives were eak if they appeared after a definite article, demonstrative pronoun, possessive pronoun, or possessive noun (in the same context as in Old English) or in direct address. Adjectives were strong if they appeared alone or as the predicate adjective. For the following sentences or phrases, say whether the italicized adjective is strong or weak and give the reason why it is so. If the rule is not applicable (if the adjective has more than one syllable), say "not applicable." Finally, say whether the writer appears to be following the rule.

  1. Alss wise men haue writen the wordes before (Base form wis).
  2. Bothe failet hym the fode and the fyne clothes (Base form fyn).
  3. Of green jaspe and rede corale (Bases gren, red).
  4. Goth henne swițe, fule țeves! (Base ful).
  5. God chargiț not siche song, but goode werkis (Base good).

Personal Pronouns

For each of the underlined pronouns, identify the person (first, second, or third), case (nominative, objective, or genitive), and number (singular or plural). For third-person pronouns, also identify the gender (masculine, feminine, neuter). Give the PDE equivalent.

  1. "Vnwit," ho sede, "awei țu flo!
    me is țe w[u]rs țat ich țe so."
  2. So on a tyme his neghburs & he fell at debate, & ane of țaim vpbrayed hym & sayd his ande stynkyd, & his mouthe, & said his yong wife was ill warid on hym. 
  3. Baldly within borde, with owre beste beryns;/I schall
    menskfully owe mete in thos faire marches.
  4. Vnkindely thing it were iwis,  that scho schulde bide be hire allone / And I beilde here so high in blis.
  5. Whenne țis was seid, thei entrid in to țe forest, and ței met with her aduersaries.

Strong and Weak Verbs

During Middle English, many previously strong verbs became weak, although many strong verbs remained, just as they do in Present Day English. In a very few instances, previously weak verbs became strong. The following sentences are from Middle English texts. An (S) after the underlined verb means that it was strong in Old English; (W) means it was weak. (OF) means it was borrowed from French; (ON) borrowed from Old Norse. Indicate by an (S) or (W) in the space after the word whether it is strong or weak in Middle English.

  1. And feendes....stode (S)           on iche halfe on hym and shewed (W)         vnto hym all is liff.
  2. Scho wippe (S)          and hir hondis wronge (S)        .
  3. He had lepte (S)          in to the ryver and drowned (ON)            .
  4. Gnattes gretely me greuede (OF) and gnewen (S)          myn eghne.
  5. Lewed men leued (W)           hym wel and lyked (W)          his wordes.